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Newtonian world and astrophysics

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GSCE

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GSCE - OCR - Physics Combined Sciences - Pcom1: Matter

Matter

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Forces

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Electricity and Magnetism

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Waves and Radioactivity 

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Energy

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Global Challenges 

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HCF and LCM

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Equation of Straight Line

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IGSCE

IGSCE - Edexcel - Maths

IGSCE - Edexcel - Physics

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GSCE - AQA - Physics Combined Sciences - Pcom1: Matter - Pcom1.1 The Particle Model

<h3>P1-1-1 Structure of an atom</h3>Plum Pudding model:In 1897 J.J. Thompson discovered the electron is much lighter than the atom, and hence realised the atom is not the smallest particle. So he proposed the Plum Pudding model:<figure class="image"><img style="aspect-ratio:400/400;" src="https://effortless-creativity-dd2bae31d9.media.strapiapp.com/P1_1a_Plum_pudding_atom_svg_99b0e23a89.png" alt="P1.1a Plum_pudding_atom.svg.png" width="400" height="400"></figure>&nbsp;The pudding is positive, and the plums in it are negative!&nbsp;JJ Thompson did not think of neutrons!&nbsp;Nuclear Model (Rutherford Model):&nbsp;In 1909 Geiger and Marsden fired some alpha particles towards a thin sheet of gold (alpha particle is made of two protons and two neutrons, so it has a positive charge!).Because they thought material is made of atoms that are like a plum pudding and hence it is soft like a pudding, they expected all of the alpha particles to pass through the metal sheet. But they saw some alpha particles bounce back! So their supervisor, Ernest Rutherford, said there is a positive nucleus at the centre of the atom which repels the positive alpha particles. He said electrons randomly orbit around the nucleus.&nbsp;

The Particle Model

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GSCE - AQA - Physics Combined Sciences - Pcom2: Forces - Pcom2.1 Motion

<h3>P2.1-1 Speed</h3>P2.1b<img src="file:///C:\Users\pedro\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png">&nbsp;P2.1aDevices used to measure distance: tape measure, metre rule, light gates, ticker tape machine, odometer of a car, GPSHow to measure time: stopwatch, data-logger connected to light gatesP2.1cConvert units of speed:Example 1: a car is moving with a speed of 12 m/s. calculate its speed in km/h.&nbsp;P2.1d<h3>P2.1-2 Scalar and Vector:</h3>&nbsp;

Motion

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GSCE - AQA - Maths - M1: HCF and LCM - M1.1 Highest Common Factor

<h3>HCF</h3>Write both numbers in terms of their prime factors.For HCF we choose the common factors with lowest powers.Example:<img src="https://effortless-creativity-dd2bae31d9.media.strapiapp.com/HCF_f3168463fe.jpg" alt="HCF.jpg"><h3>LCM</h3>We choose all the common and uncommon factors, but for common factors, we chose the highest powers!<img src="https://effortless-creativity-dd2bae31d9.media.strapiapp.com/LCM_2532a7b674.jpg" alt="LCM.jpg">

Highest Common Factor

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GSCE - AQA - Maths - M2: Equation of Straight Line - M2.1 Gradient

Gradient or Rate of Change!It is always important to know how fast some thing changes!&nbsp;&nbsp;gradient: m = rise/runm = ∆y/ ∆x<img src="https://effortless-creativity-dd2bae31d9.media.strapiapp.com/Straight_line_graph_c13137f354.png" alt="Straight_line_graph.png">

Gradient

GSCE - AQA - Maths - M2: Equation of Straight Line - M2.2 Parallel Lines

Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient:m1 = m2&nbsp;<h3>Perpendicular Lines</h3>Two lines are perpendicular if their gradient are negative reciprocal of each other:For example if gradient of one of the lines is 3, gradient of the perpendicular line is -1/3

Parallel Lines

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AS-Level - AQA - Physics - P2: Particles and radiation - P2.1 Particles

<h3>2.1.1 Some definitions:</h3>&nbsp;Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and electrons are in the nucleus of the atom and electrons orbit the nucleus.&nbsp;Nucleon: term used for protons and neutrons.&nbsp;&nbsp;In a neutral atom number of protons equals the number of electrons.Ion: when an atom loses (positive&nbsp;ion) or gains&nbsp;(negative&nbsp;ion) electrons.&nbsp;Isotope: atom of an element with different number of neutrons, but same number of protons.Specific charge =&nbsp;<img src="data:image/png;base64,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" width="135" height="36">&nbsp;; unit: C/kgAtomic Mass Unit (u): 1/12 of mass of an atom of carbon-12 (<img src="data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAABwAAAAYCAIAAABm/grVAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAAlwSFlzAAASdAAAEnQB3mYfeAAAAV5JREFUSEu1VMt1xCAMxKllN4d9qQD3g48pJBdvCbnuPbiDrSCnQC9EEuBI/gDet9GJB2KQhhl1IQT17Hh5NiDicVA/DX03TPwZT3sxenlUqgbah3Cj0cYYrZSxcYfCGqVH6zABlrDGZT0UT3GjlqDsEM9aQVs59V83NX6+n2TTfroOfaYHCAKGPGa0VAq9a0FLogzYyvREflKfdVDoewMR6V6QDDvpZQ5Kjxn5GbxGa+Zy15C84wSK38Ai/wjdZZFBWatbWhDt18UyK22hPXnzEdBKnSG0Sopx4H++4Ysu531L1UHBqKDFfriSAtuiyCMKNPlUmnfLzn8WLnG669pIatKes6gc4eACKLndwKShkPrFATQzsTrdByXpgpccBlWzduoOd4VKae5loo4MqZKkzhd9v33EsQND6q7eXhdDalcKpd/Hz08XkYdWw4UOMtu0dyCrLv4DYDn1X0B/AUU6/eyG5qKlAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width="28" height="24">). So “u” of carbon-12 is 12!Mass of a proton ≈ mass of a neutron ≈ 1 u (≈ : almost equal)&nbsp;The “atomic mass unit” of all nuclei ≈ nucleon number.Nuclei: plural of nucleus!&nbsp;Fundamental Forces:<ol><li>Electromagnetic force: keeps electrons in orbit, intermolecular bonds, repulsion or attraction between charged particles, friction, drag, tension in a rope are all electromagnetic too, it has infinite range;</li><li>Gravity: attractive force between all masses, infinite range;</li><li>Strong nuclear force: holds nucleons in a nucleus together, attractive from 3 fm to 0.5 fm; repulsive below 0.5 fm;</li><li>Weak nuclear force: affects all particles, range of order 10-18 m, responsible for nuclear reactions.&nbsp;</li></ol>&nbsp;Strong nuclear force: force that holds protons together, otherwise the protons would repel each other because of the electrostatic force.It is attractive from 3 fm to 0.5 fmIt is repulsive below 0.5 fm. (f: femto = 10-15), otherwise protons would crush into each other.Strong nuclear force acts between any two nucleons.&nbsp;Electron-volt (eV): small unit of energy used in nuclear physics instead of Jules.1 eV = energy needed to move an electron in PD of 1 volt.&nbsp;Radiation:Elements such as uranium, thorium, and radium have unstable nuclei and emit radiation.&nbsp;Radiation:<ol><li>Alpha (α): 2 protons + 2 neutrons short range in air (few of cm), can be stopped with a paper, highly ionising, happens in a nucleus with too many protons &amp; neutrons;</li><li>Beta minus (β-): an electron, range of several meters in air, can pass through paper or think plastic, happens when a neutron&nbsp;in the nucleus changes to a proton&nbsp;and electron, then the electron is emitted at high speed;&nbsp;</li><li>Beta plus (β+):&nbsp;anti particle of electron, called positron. Happens&nbsp;when a proton&nbsp;in the nucleus changes to a neutron&nbsp;and positron, then the positron is emitted at high speed;</li><li>Gamma (γ): electromagnetic radiation (photon), no charge, no mass, highly penetrative, ionising power less than that of alpha and beta. A photon is produced when&nbsp;a charged particle loses energy such as an electron falling to lower energy orbit (closer to the nucleus).</li><li>Neutron:&nbsp;itself can be emitted from a neutron rich nucleus. It is highly ionising too!</li></ol>

Particles

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AS-Level - AQA - Physics - P3: Waves - P3.3 Progressive and Stationary Waves

Wave is a transfer of energy, not matter!And that is true for progressive waves! Because they actually move from one point to another. For example water wave!But stationary waves are trapped between two points and the energy only goes back and forth between those two points! For example a guitar string vibrating. Or the sound wave in a flute.&nbsp;&nbsp;We have two types of progressive waves: transverse and longitudinal&nbsp;Transverse waves: the direction of oscillation of particles is perpendicular to the direction of the energy transfer.&nbsp;Longitudinal waves: the direction of oscillation of particles is parallel to the energy transfer.&nbsp;

Progressive and Stationary Waves

Past Papers - AS-Level - English Literature - AQA

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